The pedagogy of organ performance must deal with the tension between playing technique and musical interpretation. On the one hand, all physical possibilities of playing ought to be developed, trained, and educated in a most intensive and versatile manner. On the other hand, musical interpretation demands a specially and carefully selected playing technique.
Since organ lessons usually follow several years of thorough piano study, playing on the manuals does not pose many problems at first, even when historical fingering (early fingering) is used. However it is a completely different matter when learning to play the pedal clavier. In wide sections of the organ world the opinion is generally accepted that in the organ music of the baroque and classical periods the pedals are to be played only with the toe of the shoe. A beginner whose repertory consists primarily of works from these early periods fails to develop a versatile technique that adequately serves pedal playing for subsequent periods which require both heels and toes.
I have observed that in my classes in improvisation, the most common limitation that impedes artistic abilities is a lack of a fluent pedal technique. This ubiquitous problem has led me to search for historical sources and to read most carefully and critically such writings in order to examine the arguments which furnish the reasons for toe-playing of music from the baroque era. The very first sources mentioned in specialized literature which deal with questions of pedal application in detail are:
Johann Samuel Petri (1738-1808): Anleitung zur praktischen Musik (Guide to Musical Practice), Leipzig 1767/1; 1782/2, facsimile, Verlag Katzbichler, Giebing 1969.
Daniel Gottlob Türk (1750-1813): Beytrag von den wichtigsten Pflichten eines Organisten (On the Most Important Duties of an Organist), Halle 1787, facsimile Frits Knufs, Hilversum 1966.
Justin Heinrich Knecht (1752-1817): Vollständige Orgelschule (Complete Organ School), Leipzig 1795, facsimile, Breitkopf und Härtel, Wiesbaden 1989.
Johann Christian Kittel (1732-1809): Der angehende praktische Organist (The Beginning Practical Organist), Erfurt 1801, facsimile, Frits Knufs, Buren 1981.
J. C. Kittel: Choralbuch für Schleswig Holstein (Choral-Book of Schleswig-Holstein), Altona 1803.
Johann Samuel Petri
Petri sees himself for all practical purposes as a self-taught organist. Although he was brought up in musical surroundings--his father had first been a cantor, and his uncle had applied for the position of cantor of St. Thomas, Leipzig in 1755--he was not allowed to begin keyboard lessons until the age of sixteen. Such a late start on the clavichord had to be a hindrance to his technical facility. After only nine months' instruction Petri took over his teacher's post as organist following his mentor's death. Thus he became an organist without a thorough grounding in organ technique. Such laxness in making appointments appears to have been a common practice of the times, underscored by comments found in the writings of Türk, Knecht, and Kittel. The young Petri was not only an organist but also played the flute and stringed instruments, and even tried his hand at composing. In 1762 he was appointed music teacher in Halle where he met Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. He wrote in his Anleitungen: "Mr. Bach from Halle, whose friendship and teaching I myself have had the benefit of in 1762 and 1763, is the most powerful organ player I have ever heard."1
So we safely assume that in Petri's Anleitungen the considerable number of eighteen pages which concern the playing of the pedals and which surpass many times over the comparatively poor directions given by Türk and Kittel was influenced by his contact with W. F. Bach. Petri's examples given in the Anleitungen are extensive and virtuosic, and they exhibit a freer and more artistic shaping than those of Knecht whose exercises are more schematic. At the beginning of his book Petri writes: " . . . so the organist should be allowed to display all of his artistic skill at a wedding ceremony, after the service or before the Te Deum and should be heard playing fiery and animated preludes, fugues and pedal solos with the full organ . . ."2 As do his later colleagues in their organ methods, Petri begins his instructions with pedal scales. In his preliminary remarks dealing with pedalling he quite naturally refers to using the heel according to his rule: " . . . depending on the position of the keys one foot may be used successively several times." (See Example 1)
Following that, he goes on to describe the under-and-over placing of the feet and also a so-called "footshoving." The latter is used when it is not possible to place one foot underneath the other one. (See Example 2)
Petri's demands concerning fluent pedal playing are stringent: " . . . pedal application for runs therefore have to be learned first."3 He also demands versatility: "But does one always know beforehand on which key or the other one will end up? Thus to be on the safe side you should be prepared for all cases."4 He favors using different pedal formulae: " . . . so that the beginner does not get used to only one alone."5
Petri's extremely different pedallings which he applies to scales fortify the impression of a talented, practical, and efficient self-taught organist rather than that of a methodically trained professional pedagogue. In cases in which his pedallings (with the heel!) do not please he advises: " . . . use the feet alternately although in some cases . . . it is a little troublesome."6 Obviously Petri reckons toe-playing to be a mere simplification of a fully differentiated and elaborate pedal technique!
On the whole Petri makes high de-mands upon pedal-playing: " . . . runs like rolls or barrels and semicircles," " . . . leaps in which the feet must climb about each other in a crosswise manner several times," " . . . polyphonic and mixed pedallings." In this connection Petri refers to possible difficulties when playing intervals with one foot owing to a "too short shoe."
Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart also comments upon special shoes for organ-playing and heel-playing in his book Ideen zu einer Aesthetik der Tonkunst (1784) (Ideas on the Aesthetics of Music).
Playing the pedals poses great difficulties, owing to both its immense power as well as its varying nature. You may seldom use the right foot as you do the left, because the one really belongs to the sphere of the violoncello obbligato and the other borders the nature of the violon and the bass trombone. One has to have one's own shoes made for playing the pedals, making the heels very high so that one can play thirds and even fourths by leaping. Otherwise, the theory of playing the pedals is the same as the basso continuo.7
Schubart also describes W. Fr. Bach:
. . . doubtless the greatest organist in the world! . . . his organ playing matches or even surpasses that of his father's . . . Besides his great father no one else has ever reigned over the pedals with such an omnipotence as he has. He takes up a fugue subject with his feet, makes mordents and trills with his feet and is able to dazzle even the largest audience by his ability to play the pedals.8
Does not Petri in his versatile and practical approach to pedal-playing, and the fact that he was a student of the brilliant W. Fr. Bach place him in the same "Bach tradition" attributed to Kittel? Burney even calls Schubart "scholar of the Bach school . . . He was an organist in Ulm for some time."
Daniel Gottlob Türk
Turning to Türk, one finds little information about his training on the organ. Records show that he was taught music at the Kreuzschule in Dresden by Homilius, a Bach scholar, and he had piano lessons for three months with Johann Wilhelm Hässler. In chronicles written by Scherder of Altenbruch it is revealed that Türk took up music late in life--in fact only after he completed his apprenticeship to a draper and served for years as a journeyman in that business.9 Nevertheless, he was appointed organist of the well-known Frauenkirche in Halle in 1787. In his Beytrag von den wichtigsten Pflichten eines Organisten (On the Most Important Duties of an Organist), Türk relegated pedal instruction to a mere three pages, and he describes ways of playing a few scales, but advises organists who are beyond that low level to skip them.10 On the whole, the bulk of his writing was aimed at "improving the musical liturgy" and is meant for schoolmasters, preachers, church committees, and persons who choose to become liturgical organists. The intention of teaching a person to become a competent artistic or virtuosic musician was evidently not in his thinking! Türk gives an example to show "where both parts of each foot are needed" and refers to Petri. (See Example 311)
Türk writes:
It does not suffice to play the low registers with the left, and the higher ones with the right foot, because this would cause an incoherence and leave many gaps, even at a moderate pace. [This can be interpreted as being in favor of playing cantabile tending towards a true legato.] . . . In fact each foot acts as two fingers; because you play with the toe (front part) and with the heel [!]. Training continuously in this manner one may reach a quite high level of dexterity.12
It would be difficult to discern exactly what Türk classified as real pedal dexterity. However, as exemplified by Türk himself, organ-playing was at a very low level both in rural and in urban regions: "Many a person has the silly custom of resting his foot on the pedal throughout his most tasteless runs. This results in most hideous dissonances and everything ends up as a motley jumble."13 His advice for accompanying instrumental music is also highly significant: "It is better not to play with the pedal those passages which are very rapid, especially the runs, and which you cannot shape in a clearly distinct and 'round' manner; instead, these should preferably be played with the left hand."14 Türk writes in his introduction what he demands from a good organist: good choral (hymn) playing, a thorough knowledge of the basso continuo, and the ability to play good and appropriate preludes.
Justin Heinrich Knecht
Knecht denounces the technique of touching the pedals lightly for single notes, a performance practice that Petri did not condone: " . . . therefore an organist must be careful to express everything by the pedals in order to avoid a gap here and a gap there."15 The first volume of Knecht's organ method, which is of interest here, was published in 1795. For the first time a formally trained organist with a technique based upon virtuosic expectations comes up with a didactic work. Naturally it stresses basic playing techniques. As a student of Vogler, Knecht already belongs stylistically to a different musical world, a fact which promptly arouses Türk's criticism. Knecht devotes his attention to proper development of pedal technique and related matters for eleven pages, and he addresses his teaching not only to beginners but also to the more advanced players.
It is curious to note that he attacks problems of pedalling from two perspectives: one for the organist who is required to play upon a pedalboard of only an octave or a little more, and one for the fortunate person who had a full pedalboard of twenty-five or more notes. For the former, he advises a rigorous toe-playing approach. It was easier on a small pedal clavier to use toes, alternating feet as much as possible. On such a limited span of pedal keys either foot could play any note. For the latter, the pedalboard of at least two octaves, it was physically difficult for the right foot to reach the low end and vice versa.16, 17
Knecht himself did not consider pedalling with "toes only" a sensible practice on a full length pedalboard as is now the case in many quarters today. He therefore describes a second kind:
According to this [second kind] when playing an ascending scale passage one places the toe on a pedal key and turns the heel towards the next key in order to press it down with the heel. Then one turns the toe towards the third key and thus continues using alternately heel and toe . . . depending on the position of the upper keys of the pedals one has to use the heel more often . . . One should train oneself to use this pedalling which is to be preferred to the first [toes only] in every respect, and which the great organist Vogler mostly used.18
In addition, Knecht makes it a rule: "Except in cases of urgency, beware of pressing the upper note with the heel or hopping from one key to the other with the toe."19
As exceptions Knecht then brings forth examples of scales in which two consecutive upper keys are played by the toe of the same foot and even a scale in which an upper key is played with heel.20 Note the high G-sharp in the example below, a possibility which even the most ardent advocate of heel-playing might find questionable and uncomfortable. (See Example 4)
Knecht summarizes: "If one combines both pedallings a third one emerges which is the most convenient and which also has practical advantages."21 In his final exercises for polyphonic pedal-playing he gives additional instructions as to the choice of heel or toe to generate a strict legato.
Considering all of the aforementioned, it is safe to assume that Knecht was a highly skilled organist. His musical sensibilities evidently prompted him to pay attention to the danger of allowing the pedal to interfere with the overall musical fabric when dealing with contrapuntal music. "Using the pedal too much, especially when holding deep and low sounds fills the ear too much and becomes monotonous."22 According to Knecht it usually suffices "when one touches the pedals lightly to stress the main notes in order not to darken a melody or an outstanding delicate accompaniment by a continuous droning of the pedal."23 This was not a new idea, having already been mentioned in 1710 by Friedrich Erhard Niedt in his book Musicalischen Handleitung.24
Johann Christian Kittel
Turning to Kittel, we learn that his writings are considered to have special importance since he is known to have had lessons with J. S. Bach for two years when he was sixteen years old. Kittel does not favor us with any information about pedal playing technique passed on to him by the great master himself. He mentions only that he received instructions for composing music and for playing the 'Clavier'.25 Assuming that all keyboard instruments were covered by the term 'Clavier' his organ studies were not touched upon as being special. This is why Forkel writes about him later: "He is a thorough (although not a very dextrous) organ player."26
It is very interesting that in his instruction book Der angehende praktische Organist (The Beginning Practical Organist), Kittel does not give any practical explanation for performing nor does he supply any exercises for the novice. His book rather elaborates upon the theological, artistic, and aesthetic values necessary for playing the organ effectively in church. In this context he explains numerous rules dealing with figured bass and the theory of composition which underlie the matter of accompanying the German chorals. This is the only context which Kittel touches when he mentions a "method which is completely formed along the principles of Bach."27 Also, his account of having 'lessons' (Unterricht) with Bach28 refers solely to this context.
Yet, his own compositions reveal that he wrote in a simpler, sensitive and galant style, especially from an aesthetic point of view; Bach's former student had moved quite a distance away from his teacher. Kittel describes music as a language of sensitivity:
Happy is he who was given by nature and science the power of the Almighty to move, to heighten and to lead the hearts of thousands closer towards the Supreme Being by his playing . . . Lo, these tears of affection which are the most holy ones to be shed, these hearts so moved all wave up to God and you are the one who made flow these tears and moved these hearts . . . Reflect diligently upon the purpose of your playing, and always try to improve your moral behavior . . . the character of organ playing is strength, cordiality, dignity, solemn earnestness, majesty.29
Even though these objectives are disdained in many circles today, in my opinion they are not evidence of a decay in church music. (Every kind of theology forms its own corresponding music.) However, concerning Kittel's ideas here, there is nothing much left of the school and tradition of J. S. Bach.
There was a good and practical reason for Kittel to write his book for beginners: the level of organ playing in Germany was extremely bad in all but the largest metropolitan centers. Proof of this can be found in another writing of Kittel: the Choralbuch für Schleswig Holstein, Altona 1803. Kittel describes the same applications for the pedals as Knecht does: the exclusive toe-playing with alternating feet, here called the "first and superior" kind, and the second kind which is to play with toe and heel of the same foot, here called the "older way." He warns of using the latter, however, "because one may easily destroy the pedal keyboard by clumsy usage. This second way may be used with the first (toe) method, but the first is to be preferred in all respects."30 One can estimate the quality of his fellow organists when it can be seen that he has to explain the distribution of the four parts of the choral for the two hands!
Summary and analysis
Surveying the teaching literature chronologically, I am convinced that it was deemed necessary and of great importance to provide help for organists who had no means of serious organ study and who depended largely upon self-help method books for private study. We cannot draw valid conclusions about the playing proficiency of all four writers dealt with so far. We know that Knecht and Petri held respectable positions and wrote studies that would have been helpful to even advanced players. Türk and Kittel, on the other hand, were concerned primarily with the liturgical aspect of organ playing. They act not as experienced organists drawing upon a rich vein of professional training as performers upon the organ, but as high clerical officials with that as their primary station in life--not first and foremost performers.
The first author, Petri, still deals quite naturally with heel playing, and his demands upon pedal dexterity are the most extensive of all. Kittel, the last author of the four, favors and demands the playing of the pedals with toes only, but we must not forget that his words were directed at the beginner and the untrained.
In my opinion the reasons are less to be found in a historical tradition than in pedagogic aims. At the end of the 18th century the duties of appointed teachers and organists were being merged. "The union of school and church offices hopelessly overburdened the musician-educators, and the situation corresponded to the union of throne and altar."31 The education of teachers thus implied obligatory organ study, whether the future teacher was talented and willing or not. "In many cases this was not in the least appropriate for creating qualified organists."32 "Someone who could already accompany the chorals regularly with the organ, without pedals, was considered in some rural districts to be an advanced organist."33
At the end of his book, Der angehende praktische Organist, Kittel writes:
Many organists do not have any knowledge of music theory. Their art on the whole is limited to making scanty work of a choral and to playing an easy and studied prelude or postlude without faltering or stumbling. To be fair, one cannot demand much more from any single man who should at the same time be an organist, a teacher, and maybe a verger, and who never has had the benefit of a scholarly education . . . and who is troubled by poor domestic circumstances.34
Seen from this angle, Kittel's pedalling directions can be understood in a completely different light: using the toes for the pedals is undoubtedly the easiest and most natural way for beginners. Kittel's strong emphasis on toe playing and his warning about damaging the pedalboard when using the heel is aimed at those poor students who were totally without talent or the time to develop a genuine technique. Regular pedal exercises would undoubtedly have brought forth a different and more musical pedalling.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to obtain any knowledge about J. S. Bach's pedal playing from these available sources with which we have been dealing. Forkel describes Bach's pedal technique from the viewpoint of a later generation:
Bach . . . used . . . the pedal obbligato in a way known to very few organists. He did not only pedal the ground tones (bass notes) or the lowest notes ordinarily played by the fifth finger of the left hand, but played a complete melody with his feet which was of such a nature that others would scarcely have been able to play it with their five fingers.35
A contemporary of Bach by the name of Mitzler praises him: "With his two feet he was able to execute passages of a kind that would have given many a skillful player of the keyboard great pains to negotiate with his five fingers."36 Gerber writes: "His feet had to imitate every subject and every passage which the hands had played beforehand. No appoggiatura, no mordent, no tied trill was allowed to be missed or to sound less nice and round."37 A certain Bruggaier recorded: "J. S. Bach is singularly outstanding concerning his most skillful usage of the organ pedals."38 In another instance he continues: "Bach's double pedal playing originates from the same disposition as do fugues for solo violin. Both are an expression of an instinct for virtuoso performance which sometimes ignores technical limits."39
The only instructions for using toe pedalling ascribed to J. S. Bach himself come from his student Tobias Krebs.40 Krebs' comments, however, I am compelled to analyze in the same context as those of Kittel's pedal instructions: as a guide for neophyte organists, often forced to teach themselves. Albrecht writes about a toe-heel technique learned from Johann Caspar Vogler who was also a student of Bach.41
In all likelihood, those organists who were able to play the organ, including pedals, in true virtuosic style during the baroque era numbered only a few. Among the organists from Tunder to Krebs (1630-1780) one can find only a handful with a pedal technique that well-trained organists today take for granted. Because of this fact it is impossible to point to any scheme or course of study of that time that could have brought about widespread technical proficiency in pedal playing. Those who excelled were gifted and were persons of vision. A survey of the organ music of the period in question reveals that the bulk of it does not require a facile pedal technique and can be played most easily using only toes. It is the monumental and demanding masterpieces of the few that prompt us to doubt the efficacy of following the "toes only" plan for all baroque pieces.
Historical research uncovers other good reasons for widespread pedalling using only toes. Many of the old organs had pedalboards of such varying dimensions that a universal technique was out of the question. Many historic organs are indeed impossible to play using heels for the simple reason that the pedal dimensions preclude it. The pedals are too short, front to back, for anything but toes, and often the console layout made the player sit in a rather unbalanced position that would have prevented using heels. In spite of these drawbacks, in some situations it is possible for the expertly trained organist to use heels occasionally. So much de-pends upon such things as size of the foot, height of the player, as well as the training. In all of the writings to be found, only one person, Eduard Bruggaier, gives specific details about pedalboards and their dimensions.42 According to the results of his measuring the long keys of the Compenius organ in Frederiksborg (43 cm) or those of Gottfried Silbermann (55 cm) it would be possible to play with the heels, even with the size of our feet nowadays. In any case, I am confident that if there is enough space to pass one foot over or under the other for toe-playing, there is also space enough for using the heel on the keys.
Many sources document that even when historic organs were being built, undersized pedalboards provoked anger and criticism by the true virtuoso players. Of course, such organists were the tiny minority. Arnolt Schlick wrote in Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten in 1511: "So do not make the pedal keys too slim or too broad, but take a reasonable common measurement for the usage of everyone so that he may strike two parts with one foot . . . the sharp key of the pedals should not stand upwards at the end, but be even."43
Jacob Adlung from Erfurt, a predecessor of Kittel, wrote about the keys:
The keys should not be too short, because the feet are otherwise not able to be placed one after the other comfortably. The width of the keyboard has to be the same in every other organ, because it would be annoying having to change the accustomed way of playing for each organ. It should be possible to reach the outer keys without trouble when sitting in the middle, and furthermore having enough room for the feet.44
Again:
The whole pedalboard should be in-stalled a little inwards, because if one wanted to play something special, it would otherwise not be possible to move. The reason for this is that feet sometimes have to follow each other and there must be enough room for them. If you want to gain space by setting the bench farther away, the manual would be too far away to play . . . Such players who do not make much fuss about the pedals do not need such de-vices: however, one has to build in such a manner that it is convenient for a wide range of players . . . Also the lightness of touch is to be praised . . . times change; nowadays one wants to play two or three tailed notes [sixteenth or thirty-second notes] which one also should be able to slur.45
In the organ method book of Johann Gottlob Werner it is printed: "It is preferred to make the pedal keys out of oak wood and to adjust the length in such a manner that it is convenient to place one foot after the other . . . It should also be considered that proceeding with the toe and heel of one foot should be possible in a most convenient way."46
Johann Christian Wolfram writes:
In cases in which the organist is obliged to stretch far out to reach the manual and consequently is in constant danger of falling off the bench or if the manual is too close, too low, or too high . . . in all these cases the manuals have been installed wrongly, because it hinders good and convenient playing. It is incredible how unconcerned our good ancestors were in this respect[!]. One finds old organs at which the poor organists must have made a quite comical figure!47
When writing his book, Wolfram "had in mind the organists and rural school teachers who in most places performed the duties of the church organist."48
People everywhere were lamenting the poor organ playing in the churches and also were criticizing bad organ construction. From the point of view of the poor organ builders, it was quite probable that they had to build the minimum instrument for the situation, considering that the church would not spend more money than was necessary and their instruments were to be played by organists quite pedestrian in capabilities. Pedalboards did not have to be complete and versatile divisions for the run-of-the-mill usage.
In the end, perhaps one should even be allowed to point out that 200 years ago people generally were of smaller stature. According to a study by Professor George Kenntner49 the average height has increased by 20 cm (7 7⁄8 inches) from 1750 to today. Therefore, what we consider too-small pedalboards today might not have been such a problem then.
Always of great interest are the questions as to whether musicians and musical aesthetics helped to develop the art of organ building or whether the latter brought on styles of playing, or whether compositions helped develop technical improvements in the instrument or vice versa. How extremely different are the historic instruments from each other in cases in which we can be certain the old organ has not been altered. Just a few examples: Some actions are quite easy to play while others on the contrary are almost impossible because of the hard action; wind may be steady, even under full organ, whereas a neighboring organ has wind so shaky that it is truly an abomination; organs are tuned to different intonations, so a piece of music that sounds right on one will sound ugly on another; organs with short octaves allow the hand to span a tenth with ease, while on a standard keyboard that is not possible for many players; the compass of the keyboards vary in range as much as an octave. In short, organ playing is always a new experience and depends completely upon the individual instrument and its location.
Thus, a true historical interpretation, applying the most detailed knowledge possible, about practical performing conditions would be nothing more than a mere attempt to find the 'best' solution for the individual instrument, and let us admit that after all is said and done, the musical outcome is in the hands and feet of the organist interpreting the music.
When I teach pedal playing I sympathize with Petri: One has to be 'armed' to encounter all kinds of pedalboards, all shapes and styles. I believe that a pure application of toe-playing must be understood and practiced, but not to cling to it rigorously. To understand it is necessary to employ it to make musical sense: " . . . a secure and effortless technique will free the player to concentrate on playing more musically and communicating with the listener . . . "50 This in fact is the whole point: to let the music speak, and not be overly compelled to adhere to narrow views on toe or heel.
Prepared for publication in English by Emmet G. Smith, Fort Worth, Texas.
Notes
1. Petri, Anleitungen sur praktischen Musik, p. 101.
2. Petri, loc. cit., p. 298.
3. Petri, loc. cit., p. 315.
4. Petri, loc. cit., p. 317–318.
5. Petri, loc. cit., p. 321.
6. Petri, loc. cit., p. 321.
7. Ch. F. D. Schubart, Ideen zu einer Aesthetik der Tonkunst, Verlag Reclam, Leipzig 1784/1, p. 220.
8. Ch. F. D. Schubart, loc. cit., p. 96.
9. According to G. Fock, Zur Biographie J. Kittels, in Bachjahrbuch 1962.
10. Türk, Von den wichtigsten Pflichten eines Organisten, loc. cit., p. 158.
11. Türk, loc. cit., p. 159.
12. Türk, loc. cit., p. 158.
13. Türk, loc. cit., p. 158.
14. Türk, loc. cit., p. 107.
15. Türk, loc. cit., p. 314.
16. See Knecht, Vollstandige Orgelschule, loc. cit., vol. l, p. 45.
17. See Christian Namberger, Untersuchungen zu ergonomischen Optimirung von Orgelspielanlagen, Verlags-GmbH Kleinbittersdorf, 1999.
18. Knecht, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 47.
19. Knecht, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 48.
20. Ibid.
21. Knecht, loc. cit., vol. 1, p. 51.
22. Knecht, loc. cit., vol. 1, p. 85.
23. Knecht, loc. cit., vol. 1, p. 81.
24. Friedrich Erhard Niedt, Musicalische Handleitung, Hamburg, 1710, facsimile, Frits Knuf, Buren, 1976, Chap. IV, p. 43.
25. Letter to the 'Consistorium' in Zeitz in 1756.
26. Johann Nikolaus Forkel, J. S. Bach, facsimile edition, Frankfurt, 1950, p. 43.
27. Kittel, Der angehende praktische Organist, Preface.
28. Kittel, loc. cit., 3. part.
29. Kittel, loc. cit., Introduction, p. 4ff.
30. Cited by Knufs facsimile, p. 65.
31. Arnfried Edler, Typen des protestantischen Kantors im 19. Jahrhundert und ihre Musik, in Zur Orgelmusik im 19. Jahrhundert, Verlag Helbling, Innsbruck, 1983, p. 17.
32. Ibid.
33. Arnfried Edler, loc. cit., p. 17.
34. Kittel, Der angehende praktische Organist, loc. cit., 2. part, p. 95.
35. Johann Nikolaus Forkel, J. S. Bach, loc. cit., p. 37.
36. Musicalische Bibliothek, IV, l, p. 172. Cited by Peter Krams, Wechselwirkungen zwischen Orgelkomposition und Pedalspieltechnik, Wiesbaden, 1974, p. 67.
37. Ernst-Ludwig Gerber, Historisch-Biographisches Lexikon der Tonkünstler, Leipzig, 1812/14, vol. I, p. 90; cited by Peter Krams, ibid.
38. Eduard Bruggaier, Studien zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels in Deutschland bis zur Zeit Johann Sebastian Bach, dissertation, Frankfurt, 1959, p. 137.
39. Bruggaier, loc. cit., p. 149.
40. See Klotz, Orgelspiel, in MGG, vol. 10, col. 389.
41. Christoph Albrecht, Zur Artikulation Bachscher Orgelwerk, in Der Kirchenmusiker, 1988, p. 3.
42. See Bruggaier, loc. cit.
43. Cited by Peter Krams, Wechselwirkungen, loc. cit.
44. Jacob Adlung, Anleitung zu der musicalischen Gelahrtheit, Erfurt, 1758, facsimile, Bärenreiter, 1953, p. 359.
45. Musica mechanica II, p. 26, cited by E. Bruggaier, loc. cit.
46. Johann Gottlob Werner, Orgelschule, Penig, 1807, p. 31.
47. Johann Christian Wolfram, Anleitung zur Kenntniss, Beurtheilung und Erhaltung der Orgeln, Gotha, 1815, facsimile, Frits Knuf, Amsterdam, 1962, p. 117.
48. J. Ch. Wolfram, loc. cit., Prologue VI.
49. George Kenntner, article in Friedericiana, Zeitschrift der Universität Karlsruhe, part 46.
50. Gerard Brooks, Your Feets Too Big, in Organists' Review, August, 1997.
